1.Teachers Key Role
The process of implementation of educational programs includes many components such as curriculum development, production of educational materials, teacher training program, administrative organization, test development, execution of examinations etc. They are all meant for making the classroom teaching learning situation effective. Implementation can be successful only when teachers are ready to organize the learning experiences for students and use of educational materials that are appropriate for respective curriculum they have to teach (Lewin 1951, Tisher et al 1972). This key role of teachers in the implementation of educational programs has a great significance (Gagne 1972). The greater the teachers are competent the greater is the chance of success of educational programs. There is no doubt that education keeps on improving as teacher's competencies increases. Beeby (1966) has said that education evolves with the capabilities of teachers. Bennett (1980) explicitly expresses the point in the context of Nepal in his article 'Reform of education for rural transformation':
"If the teacher is not competent, no matter how relevant the curriculum, how well designed the materials, how effective the administrative system, how effective the financial mechanism, how schools are supplied with materials, and how eager the community is to be involved; the education will be of poor quality, and the objectives of reform will not be met".
"However, if the teacher is competent, creative and committed, the school can be effective even if the curriculum and administration are poor, there are almost no materials or equipment etc. a good teacher can provide a good education, even if the system is inherently weak. A bad teacher can in no way provide good education even in the best of the system (p.11).
Beeby (1979) has said as follows:
"Qualitative changes in classroom practice will occur only when teachers understand them, feel secure with them, and accept them as their own (p.289)". Beeby (1979
But there are also some misleading statements in the literature on implementation:
Adams and Bjork (1969)'
"A further word of caution should be introduced. Educators tend to assume that improving teachers will improve teaching, and conversely that instruction can be improved only by better teachers. In the light of advances in educational technology, this view should be examined critically. Certainly, educating better teachers must always remain an important goal; but in the absence of professional, self-directed teachers, such aids as nationally prepared syllabi, laboratory materials, and programmed lessons can significantly improve instruction (p.125)".
Such a statement is misleading and has been proved to be wrong in even the educational attempts of the last 30 years in Nepal. Who will handle the materials supplied in the absence of able teachers is the question that arises. Educational materials itself can not provide skills that teachers need for organizing classroom teaching learning situation with reasonable effectiveness. But competent teachers can modify and elaborate the facilities available to suite the situation and they can also develop or construct educational materials.
Whitehead (1929) in Gurrey (1963) says: 'Everything depends on the teachers (p.1)".
Gagney (1977) also believes that:
"Besides the student who is learning, the most important agent in an educational program is the teacher. It is the teacher's job to see that the various influences surrounding the student are selected and arranged to promote learning (p.2)"
"In playing this role, the teachers design situations that require the student to demonstrate what he has learned.
The proper structuring of the learning environment to ensure that students achieve objectives is a demanding activity which is critically dependent upon knowledge learning process (p.4)".
Ward expressed such an idea of teacher’s key role as far back as 1959 as follows:
"The Cambridge conference of 1952, discussing the curriculum, agreed that the main, both primary and secondary schools, was not so much a series of specially devised syllabuses as 'livelier and fresher approach to teaching. … but the main responsibility must still be with the teacher. A bad syllabus in the hands of a good teacher will produce better results than a good syllabus in the hands of bad teacher. By all means let us overhaul our syllabuses and write the textbooks to suite them; but our main effort must be to develop what Cambridge conference calls a 'livelier and fresher approach to teaching. More teachers and better teachers are what the schools chiefly need (p.77)."
Esler (1977) also has expressed similar view/ confidence.
Again from Beeby (1966) showing the dependency on teachers for achieving the goals of education.
'…as the investigator has already suggested, these goals are dependent on what teachers in the schools are capable of accomplishing (p.14)".
"A relevant principle to be drawn from "hypothesis of stages is that, for teachers, if not for educational philosophers, the goals of education are emergent, in the sense that they must be within the range of teacher's capabilities, and will evolve as those capabilities expand. The more clearly the teachers can be made to see the immediate goals, the more likely they are to make their own, eventually approach them and then see other goals beyond them. To set a goal that is too distant may only be to confuse an adequately prepared teachers, but on the other hand, a temporary goal that is too easily achieved tends to become an end in itself, and constant pressure is necessary to keep the system on the move. One of the ways is to encourage the liveliest and ablest of the teachers constantly to experiment and break new grounds (p.17)".
On basis of educational wastage Beeby (1966) further makes the point as follows:
"We have even less hard evidence on the causes of this wastage than we have on its extent, but experienced educators who know these areas seem to agree that poor teaching must take a large portion of the blame. Poverty, ill health, irregular attendance, parental apathy, and the demand for the child labor are doubtless all contributing causes, but both parents and children will be willing to make sacrifices for good education that would not contemplate (look at / regard) for a schooling that only leads to boredom and stagnation. In fact, poor teaching is major cause of wastage of this magnitude, there does seem to be ample room for planning some reform of the primary schools without running too soon into the difficulties caused by sophisticated disagreement on the concept of quality. There may still be differences of opinion on such policy issues as the extension of primary education or its closer adaptation to life on the land, by one means or another, to achieve more effectively the modest schoolmaster's aims they already profess."
Baez (1976) puts the importance on teacher like this:
"The involvement of teachers in the creative or adaptation phase is important. The eventual success or failure on the materials produced by the project depends on whether in the actual classroom situation the teachers are willing and able to use the new materials …one way to achieve this, if they were not involved in their development, is to give special courses to the teachers so that they feel at home with new approaches and materials in the right way. Teacher training is therefore of vital importance. But I also pleading here for more direct involvement by at least some of the teachers in the creative process and that takes place when the new materials are first being dreamt up (p93)."
The involvement of the teachers as in the developmental process of the program can be adopted during the training phase as well.
Here this investigator would like to emphasize the point further that the teacher involved should have an understanding of the rationales for science teaching so that they can develop ideas and learning opportunities for their students. The teacher training based on the rationales for science teaching is very necessary. The emphasis should be given more to teacher training than to the dissemination of materials and syllabi (Gurrey 1963, Byram in Gooding et al 1983, Maybury 1975, Tisher et al 1972), as Ward (1959) observed (to reiterate):
"A bad syllabus in the hands of a good teacher will produce better results than a good syllabus in the hands of bad teachers." (p.77)
(Anyway those aspects can be incorporated during the implementation of the training program as well)
So a teacher training to popularize science education especially in a situation like in Nepal becomes seriously important to form the basis for the development of science education.
2. Rationales for teaching
Given the nature of science there are some activities which are expected in classroom teaching. In the simplest term there are some sort of direct experiences providing opportunities to learn, help indirectly by teachers through questioning, directions, discussions etc. Students should get a chance to think and apply knowledge and skills learned thereby involving them in higher level of mental works as much as possible in practical sense. For example, interpreting, applying, analysing, synthesising etc. are important aspects of mental abilities. ( Kubli 1983, Caldwell 1968, Gagne 1977, Sund and Trowbridge 1973, Driver 1983, Esler 1977, Dongol 1979, Victor 1975, Romey 1968, Carin and Sund 1970). Therefore, the students should be engaged in doing experiments, making materials whenever possible, conducting projects, doing demonstrations, reporting and explaining, asking questions etc. On the other hand, teachers must be able to assist students in learning by providing minimum of help through demonstrations, questioning, directions etc. rather than always telling and doing works for them. The goal is to encourage them to think on their own so that students have the opportunities to learn by themselves in their own way. It is possible to identify the basic activities recommended by educationists for a better teaching learning situation. In general it can be said that the students must have the opportunities to do all possible learning activities which can help them to learn subject matter knowledge and develop talents useful for the rest of the life. Activities done by the students independently for learning are called student-centred activities. The rationales behind the philosophy is that they encourage students to think critically and independently to enquire and investigate systematically, to assist data and evidence to reason, to develop and understand concept, to engage in the world around them and transform it. It gives students freedom from oppression, be responsible for their own learning and the opportunities to find their own preferred style of learning.
3. Teaching learning principle
There are some principles which can be applied for making teaching learning situation effective as claimed by the rationales of teaching / learning. In other words, there are some beliefs that are acceptable to teaching specialists. As for example, the practical way of learning or by actually doing is more interesting and thus more effective than by learning through lectures and rote memorisation. Varieties of experiences or examples develop confidence in the learners around the areas of lesson learned. The students must have opportunities to do, to think, to express, to organise, to plan and so on. Activities that involve more of the senses are less tiring. One can work longer if work involves observation, writing, construction, movement, touching, hearing, tasting, thinking, verification etc. Teachers should be able to distinguish the learning theme which students can discover themselves under teacher's guidance and lessons for which they should be told. A teacher could be learning while teaching, particularly when one comes across unfamiliar aspect of the lesson, though the teacher has to master the subject matter and plan the ways of teaching lessons.
A list of generalisations as teaching and learning principles is given here. They are adopted from Sund and Trowbridge 1973, pp.27/28. Similar views are also expressed by many other educationists such as Victor 1975, Esler 1977, Driver 1983, Carin and Sund 1970, Eggleston et al 1976, Kubil 1983 etc.
a. Principle of Learning
1. Students learn best by being actively involved. If they can do an experiment themselves rather than read about it, they will learn better.
2. Positive reinforcement is more likely to result in student's learning than negative reinforcement. A teacher who compliments and encourages the students is more likely to obtain higher achievement than who tells them their work is poor or derides them for poor achievement. Threat or punishment may cause avoidance tendencies in the student, preventing learning. Some failure can best be tolerated by providing a backlog of successful experiences.
3. A situation with fresh and stimulating experiences is a kind of reward that enhances learning.
4. Learning is transferred to the extent the learner sees possibilities for transfer and has opportunities to apply his knowledge.
5. Meaningful material is easiest learned and best retained.
6. Learning is enhanced by a wide variety of experiences that are organised around purposes accepted by students. Teach in depth. Do not try to cover the book. Cover what you can do well, giving opportunities for students to have many experiences with the subjects.
7. The learner is always learning other things than what a teacher is teaching. A teacher may have a student heat a chemical solution to get a precipitate. The teacher is teaching a chemical process. But students are also learning the laboratory skills and how to organise the equipment, be efficient in the laboratory, and work with others. None of these is likely to be tested in an examination.
8. Learning is increased when provided in a rich and varied environment. The richer the classroom, laboratory, and school surroundings in offering opportunities for learning, the greater the level of achievement. A bear and uninteresting room offers little stimulation for learning.
9. Detail must be placed into a structured pattern or it is rapidly forgotten.
10. Learning from reading is increased if time is spent on recalling what has been read (recall helping activities) rather than rereading.
b. Teaching principles
1. Planned teaching results in more learning.
2. Students tend to achieve in ways they are tested. If you test only for facts, they tend to memorise only facts.
3. Students learn more effectively if they know the objectives and are shown how to gain these ends. Science teachers should spend time discussing the purposes of doing experiments by enquiry and processes used in solving problems.
4. The teacher's function in the learning process is one of the guidance, guiding individuals to reach an objective. She creates an atmosphere for learning.
5. Pupils learn from one another. Working in-groups in laboratory or other suitable works can enhance learning. It should be such that they have opportunities to share ideas and discuss each other about the works they are doing when they feel necessary.
6. When an understanding of detail of any theory or apparatus is determined by the whole, then the comprehension of that part must wait until the whole is understood. A teacher does not teach about the histology of the body until a student knows about the general anatomy of the body.
c. Objectives of science teaching
The well accepted view of science among the science educationists and scientists has to be reflected in teaching learning situation not only in classrooms but wherever teaching learning occur to justify learning as science. It is also discussed by many science educators that science learning involves contents or knowledge, the process of learning the knowledge and the reasons why the process in science is very important. During the process of learning science many activities occur. They are lectures, questioning, experiments, projects, field trips, demonstrations, work book exercises etc. These activities have to be chosen appropriately for lessons for the situation a lesson has to be taught or learned.
MODEL LESSONS
Model no. 1
when the educational materials are available for all students
Lesson : Pendulum
concepts or facts:
Time of oscillation of a pendulum depends upon its length but not on amplitude and the types of materials used as weight.
Behavioural objectives the students will be able to:
Perform experiment, draw facts and concepts from the experiment, describe the experiments in written.
Materials: a piece of string (about 2 metres), some pieces of rock of different size, rate of own pulse, self-made scale, self made graph paper.
teaching activities:
First the students must find the pulse rate. Two students are required to do the experiment using pulse rate as the timer. Stop watch can be used if it is available. The reading of lesson from the text, writing questions, and the collection of materials are assigned as home work in earlier days. This helps to get prepared before hand.
In the beginning of the class, a discussion can be carried out to find out any difficulties students have about the lesson. After the discussion, the students are asked to carry out the experiment using their own materials they have brought. Some times diligent students may have finished the experiment at home, such students can be used to look after other students during the class.
teacher’s work:
While students are doing Their works independently, the teacher watches the students works, go around the class, ask questions and give directions helping to carry out the experiment if any difficulties or confusion are noticed, but still maintaining the originality of the students’ works.
Note: This type of experiments can be conducted in groups as well. This type of works does not require special skill or pre-cautions. Group work can be better because the students will have opportunities to discuss with each other.Home works: to continue the similar work using other types of materials as weights
Model no. 2
Lesson : Electromagnet
concepts or facts:
A magnetic substance (nail) becomes magnet when electricity is passed around it through an insulated wire.
Behavioural objectives: the students will be able to:
I. make an electromagnet with simple indigenous materials
II. describe the experiment with sketches.
Materials: nails, cigarette foils, batteries, iron dust if possible, pins, needles and thread.(Battery is expensive but if it is for classroom purposes only, will not be costly, because it could last as long as 1 year. It is possible to manage with only one battery.)
teaching activities:
preparation: Cigarette foils collected by students can be cut to suitable breadth (1 cm) and length. Folding can be done in such a way so that shining aluminium side of the foil is closed inside and the paper pasted is exposed outside. It is possible to make it suitable to wrap around a nail as an insulated wire. There are some cigarette foils that do not conduct electricity, so a test for the purpose is essential. The aluminium of the two ends of the foil is exposed to connect to the two terminals of a battery. While the foil is connected to the battery the current flows around the nail and behaves as a magnet. It attracts pin, iron dust, or needles. It is wise to fasten wrapped cigarette foils at the two ends of the nail by thread. It makes sure that the wrapped cigarette foil does not get loose by unwinding off the nail.
teacher’s work: It is essential to show to the students how the construction or making of the electromagnet by this method is done. Let the students follow the process step by step. After having done the making They can test it turn by turn using the same battery, if batteries can not be provided to all of the students. In the mean time students are testing the electromagnet they have made, they may be asked to write down the works they have done, simultaneously, walk around the classroom, see students doing works, see their testing, writing, drawing etc.. and help them mostly by questioning.
Home works: to make electromagnet using other types of materials
Model lesson 4
lesson * Kepler*s first law of planetary motion
Facts*concepts* Planets go around the Sun in elliptical path. The Sun remaining at one of the foci of the ellipse
Materials* a drawing on a large card board paper which reflects Kepler*s first law of planetary motion around the Sun.
Preparation* making of the chart as said above.
Behavioural objectives*
Students will be able to:
I. Interpret the chart showing the Kepler*s first law of the planetary motion around the Sun in one’s own words.
II. Make own chart or model reflecting the first law.
Teaching* The students are to be suggested to study the chart carefully with necessary help to understand the chart. They are required to express the law in their own words. The correct expression will ensure that the students have understood the law.
Teacher*s work* going around the class. Help students by questioning. And, at the same time see the works done by the students. Also help them for correction if required.
Home works* make models or charts using varieties of materials that are possible around their locality to represent the law.
Teaching module no. 5/6
Some lessons can be taught better by teacher’s demonstration than by students doing experimental activities individually or in groups.
Lesson * Archimedes* Principle
concepts or facts
An object immersed in water looses its weight apparently equal to the weight of the water displaced by it.
Behavioural objective
Students will be able to:
1. Prove the Archimedes* principle using domestic materials
2. discover it through an experimentation
3. express it in words
4. describe the experiment with necessary sketches
materials
rubber band, two pieces of thread * 30 cm each*, a small container which can hold water displaced by the piece of rock immersed in water during experiment, a piece of rock, water in a vessel in which the rock can be immersed in water.
Construction and experimentation
1. Fix up the materials as shown in the diagram
Join the materials to hang in order of thread, rubber band, thread, container, and rock at the end of the thread.
before drowning the rock in water
2. First measure the length of the of the rubber band.
3. Mark the level of water in the vessel.
After drowning the piece of rock in water of the vessel taken
4. The piece of the rock should not touch any side of the vessel but immersed completely in water.
5. Measure the length of the rubber band keeping the rock freely immersed in water.
6. Mark the level of water, this will show the amount of displaced water in the vessel.
7. Take out the displaced water and put it in the container hung above, still keeping the piece of the rock inside water.
8. Again measure the length of the rubber band while the rock is in water and displaced water is in the container.
Teaching
Let one or two students do the experiment under teacher*s guidance at the demonstration table from fixing materials to experimentation. In order to help them understand and explain what happened in the experiment just let them describe the work done and ask questions where it is necessary to draw their attention at the proper step. A series of questions may be asked by using one of the following two techniques.
First technique
Questions like, what happened*, why the water level was raised *, why the rubber band became longer or shorter *, how much weight had to be added to make the length of the rubber band equal to the length before drowning the rock in water *, what is the relationship between loss in weight of the rock while in water and the displaced water * can be asked.
note* of course the teacher has to be tactical while asking questions as it depends on the answer given by the students. Teacher must be able to ask leading questions considering each answer given for each of the questions asked. So string of questions will be different for different groups of students.
Second technique
If the students are able for higher level of mental works the following approach can be adopted. Students also formulate some hypothesis on their own or they may be asked to think of some assumptions and ask questions on the basis of their observations. Encourage students to ask only such questions which can be answered by *yes* or *no* only. But teacher should not ask such questions as far as possible unless it is absolutely necessary or no other questions can be formulated. Such questions can be answered without thinking or they can be answered by rote learning without any understanding. But formulating such questions require thinking assumptions. Students can go on asking questions until they are able to explain the Archimedes* principle or the experimentation they are doing.
Teacher*s role
Teacher can go around the class checking students* works.
Home works
Let them design different ways of doing the experiment. This experiment can be done at least by 8 different ways using indigenous materials. Let them invent.
Model lesson no. 7
When only textbooks are available or do not need other than written text.
Lesson* any theoretical lesson
Facts and concepts * not any particular
Behavioural objectives*
Students will be able to:
I. read the lesson for comprehension
II. formulate questions
III. answer questions in written
Teaching
Let the students read the lesson silently. Students are to be told to make questions from the part they do not understand as well as from the areas they do understand. This much of the study may be done as home assignment. This activity may be done for about 50% percent of the class period. After this reading a question answer discussion *competition is to be organised among groups of students. They should also make drawings whenever required or and possible. Teacher should also ask questions when it is felt essential. Answers are given only when students can not answer by themselves.
Homework* do reading similarly for theoretical lessons.
Model lesson 8
As a first lesson on Microscope handling
A microscope is an instrument that you have to learn by actually handling it. But this is not available in our school for all pupils to handle in a single sitting. So it is necessary to organise the class in such a way so that all students get chance to handle it . So in this lesson I am trying to show how we can conduct the class in order to give opportunity to the entire student to handle the microscope.
Facts and concepts: not applicable.
Behavioural objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. Focus a specimen under a microscope
2. Draw a microscope showing different parts of the microscope
Materials
One compound microscope, a labeled large drawing of the microscope including the process of handling it, one slide with specimens etc.
Teaching
First of all, I demonstrate with a microscope to show them its parts and their function and the procedure to handle it and revise this with the help of two charts - one, showing the parts of the microscope and second, showing the steps of handling. I also show them the preparation of a simple microscopic slide e.g. peeling off the ventral side of a leaf to observe stomata under the microscope. After this, the class has to go with two types of activities simultaneously. One, the whole class of students is engaged in drawing and writing the steps of handling a microscope. Second, a group of students 5 or 6 can come over at the demonstration place to prepare slide and observe the slide under the microscope. This being the first lesson on the microscope handling the grouping has to be such that each student gets chance at least to focus the specimen under the microscope.
Home works: preparing write up of the microscope handling
Model no. 9
Through exhibitions.
Exhibition also can be a very convenient teaching technique when it is difficult to carry educational materials form classroom to classroom and from one corner to another, and when the students are crowded so no practical works are possible in the classroom
Lesson: educational material of all lessons
4.1 Topics related to science teaching
If one thinks about what a teacher should know to become a science teacher any person would agree that a science teacher at least must know the objectives of science teaching, the content knowledge of the course one has to teach, and the methods of teaching science to use to teach the contents to achieve the objectives of science. Books on science teaching like Summers (1982), Sapianchai 1982, Carin and Sund 1970, Victor 1975m Tisher et al 1972, Esler 1977, Sund and Trowbridge 1973 , etc. include topics from these areas. The writer himself being a science teacher educator and has been teaching courses related to science teaching for over 25 years he is very much aware of these areas. Courses taught at colleges also include these areas.
Caldwel 1968 recommends:
"1. Teachers should be presented with the philosophy of contemporary science education and the rationales for using indirect activities. The presentation may be written, verbal or both.
2. Teachers should have the opportunity to discuss the philosophy of contemporary science education and the rationales of science teaching for using indirect activities." (p. 38)
These areas can be classified into three main areas (Victor 1975). The teacher must be equally familiar with philosophy, contents, and the techniques of science teaching in the elementary school. So the writer presents the following list of contents related to science teaching for the training programme followed by their explanations.
a. modern view of the nature of science
b. rationale for science teaching
c. selected contents of science lesson from textb00k
d. methods of teaching science suitable to prevalent situation.
e. Questioning (introduction and distinction of rote learning/ memory and thinking types).
f. Introduction to behavioral objectives
g. Introduction to the most basic aspect of Piaget's theory of cognitive development of human
h. Lesson planning format
i. Science activities and experiments using indigenous materials
j. A discussion on the nature of children based on general experiences as as Victor 1975 says:
"if the science programme in the elementary school is to be effective, the teacher must be aware of and utilize what research tell us about characteristics of the child. Knowing and understanding what philosophy says about children will do much to make the teaching and learning of science profitable and rewarding experience for both teacher and children" (p. 32)
4.2. Explaining the modern view of science
The modern view of science
There is no short definition science. But its characteristics that are acceptable to educationists can be explained. In education it is not thought enough to recite some of the scientific knowledge only. Science is not limited to knowledge only. One may be learning different kinds of knowledge that are not known in other parts of the world but still one can be learning science. So science is not determined by the kind of knowledge or subject matter. In learning a part of knowledge the process of learning is also important. There are different ways of learning lesson. For example, let us take the lesson on flower. It is possible to rote memorize some characteristics about a flower by just reciting what teacher says or what is written in books. The modern view of science has gone beyond this notion. It says that the students must learn the methods of studying the flower. The method of studying a flower helps to develop skills and abilities such as describing, observing, sketching etc. So that the students can become able to study another flower by themselves independently. Thus it becomes quite clear that a science lesson should be learned in such a way that a learner learns knowledge by developing necessary skills and talents. Therefore, it can be said that science is a process of learning knowledge by developing desired skills and abilities and attitudes.
For example Sund and Trowbridge 1973:
"the philosophical basis of science is distinguished by its approach to the discovery of knowledge" (p/22)
Hurd 1971:
"science is a continuous process of seeking new knowledge, new explanations and deeper understanding" (p. 17)
Esler 1977:
"science, then is a dynamic process, a search for the "best" answer to any question concerned with the world around us. What science is not is a set of facts. Those who work with science know that what is fact to-day is questioned tomorrow, and often ridiculed as non-sense a year from now. As teachers we must help our students as quest, not as an acquisition, as an on going enterprise, not as a finished task." (p.12)
Aldous Huxley in Sun and Trowbridge 1973:
"one of the great achievements of science is to have developed a method which works almost independently to the people whom it is operated on,"(p.1)
Sund and Trowbridge 1973:
"the key to whether a body of knowledge could be included under the heading of science if it was discovered by the scientific method. If our awareness of a phenomenon is determined by use of such scientific process as observation, measurements, experimentation and other operations included in the scientific methods, it is scientific information .. the product of scientific investigation is scientific knowledge .. but science is more the just knowledge. 9P.2)
Chalmers 1978:
"science is a process without a subject." P.100)
Hurd 1971 makes the point sharper by drawing a line that merely teaching biology, chemistry, or physics does not necessarily mean teaching science as follows:
Hurd 1971:
". one scientist described the situation this way: high school teachers are so busy teaching biology, chemistry and physics that they forgot to teach science of their subjects." (p.13)
The above statements suggest that subject as such can not be considered as science and indicate that in the definition of science that has to be fulfilled is the process or method of learning. In Nepal, however, this is not the case.
The meaning of the term 'science' in Nepal
So far the writer has presented the process of science as described by western writers. But the meaning of science to a particular group of people is, to some extent, based on local beliefs and language. In Nepalese language the equivalent word for science is 'bigyan' meaning 'pure knowledge' literally. Its meaning implies that knowledge may be pure and whole or impure and incomplete. An important point in discussion with science teachers of Nepal is the nature of science. For example ',"magnets attract iron and other magnetic substances". This is a knowledge statement. Would it be 'pure' knowledge if some one merely memorized it and never saw a magnet or a magnet attracting a piece of iron?. Alternately, would the knowledge be 'pure' if it is experienced by a learner who actually experimented with magnet and touched magnetic substances with it and thus came to his own conclusions. If we had to choose, we would say that the first rote-memorization approach does not provide experience for 'pure' knowledge as actual phenomenon described. In the second approach, the learner also learns the general approach / process of finding out the knowledge. The involvement in the learning process provides the opportunities to develop different skills and talents as well.
Thus science becomes a process of learning knowledge by developing skills and abilities and other objectives of science teaching. Although it is both knowledge and process (Carin and Sund 1970, Kulson and Stone 1968) - the determining factor for the nature of science is the process (Sund and Trowbridge 1973) not types of facilities, materials, content of knowledge.
4.3. Changing concept of science education
The modern concept of science evolved in the western world can be found in Uzzels's 1978 ' the changing aims of science teaching', Strike and Poisner's 1982 'conceptual change and science teaching' and Victor 1975 'science in America'.
Science teaching in the UK was started as far as 1840's and in The USA in 1860's. Victor has written:
'the third NSSE (National society for the study of education) year book (published in 1960) expressed its awareness of the increasing dependence of society on science .. .. it is added "problem-solving and critical thinking" to it list of objectives, and it stressed the importance of teaching science as a process." (p.4)
Then by launching different science programmes the USA ushered a new era in science education. Some such changes seem to have affected the UK (Uzzel 1978). With similar objectives Nuffield Science Projects were started in the UK. Gould 1983 indicated that the objectives of science were to bring changes in the main three main areas: syllabus content, methods of teaching science, and means of assessment: all guided by modern view of science.
Gould 1983:
"our attempt to develop a more contemporary experimental and inquiring attitude In teaching and learning has demanded not only consideration of what is taught (although this is obviously important) but much more of how the teaching should be conducted.
Essentially, the project sought to encourage a more scientific, experimental study of biology through the method of guided discovery." (p.201)
Uzzel 1978 writes:
"the last twenty years have seen the most rapid and radical changes in science curricula and the approach to science teaching. .. the intellectual demands of what is taught have increased for rote-learning in the nineteenth century to the sophisticated abilities and attitudes expected in recent years." (p.19)
it seems the teaching -learning of science in Nepal is comparable to the very early stage of science teaching in the USA and UK. The rote-learning of science goes back to the third quarter of the last century or the beginning of science teaching in those countries.
Topic: clinically supervised practice teaching.
This session is conducted after demonstration teaching session of various methods while teaching different lessons are completed. The participating teachers were also supervised at their own schools. They have shown some understanding of teaching as demanded by the rationales of science teaching. So it is thought that it is prime time conduct clinically supervised practice teaching is organized so that sharing of ideas are at maximum. This is the third phase of the training programme.
Objectives:
Demonstration teaching will or should have done by all of the participants as thought by the teacher educator must be done. Each participant may require doing teaching more than once.
It is expected after the completion of this session the participants will achieved the following skills.
1. Demonstrate various teaching methods.
2. Observe and record class room teaching activities as they occur during demonstration teaching.
3. Discuss the classroom teaching performance on the basis of rationales of science teaching.
4. Evaluate classroom teaching performance on the basis of rationales of teaching.
Materials
Lesson plans and educational materials as required by the following lessons that are chosen for the practice teaching sessions.
1. Theoretical lessons for demonstration of reading comprehension method.
2. Electromagnet.
3. Circuit – lighting a bulb.
4. Solar eclipses
5. Lunar eclipse.
6. Introduction of microscope and stomata.
7. Photosynthesis.
Method: Demonstration teaching
Classroom activities
Facilitator Participants
One participant teaches a class of school students.
The teacher educator leads a discussion after the demonstration teaching.
Together with the participants the teacher educator note down the activities occurred during teaching as they occur.
Feed back: demonstration teaching.
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